John Chowning, a pioneering composer and researcher, played a pivotal role in the development of FM synthesis and computer music. His journey from traditional musician to electronic music innovator illustrates the power of curiosity, perseverance, and interdisciplinary collaboration in driving technological breakthroughs.
Early Musical Journey
Chowning's musical journey began conventionally. He learned violin at age eight, understanding concepts like vibrato from an early age. During high school, he played cymbals in the band, later transitioning to drums. He recalls, "I was playing cymbals, watching the snare drummer next to me, and I thought, that looks like a lot more fun and learned to play rudimentary, rudimentary drumming, not just drumming, but rudimentary drumming like drum and bugle corps stuff, really very tightly rigorous."
His passion for music led him to join the Navy Music School during the Korean War. Chowning explains, "People either got drafted or they signed up. So I auditioned for the Navy Music School, which was at that time populated by some really great musicians." He played in a band on an aircraft carrier, further honing his skills.
After his naval service, Chowning attended college on the GI Bill, studying music composition. His education then took him to Paris, where he studied with the famous teacher Nadia Boulanger from 1959 to 1962.
The Spark of Electronic Music
A transformative moment came when Chowning heard Karlheinz Stockhausen's electronic piece "Kontakte" in Paris. He was fascinated by Stockhausen's spatial sound manipulations, particularly the rotational effects achieved by recording a spinning loudspeaker. Chowning describes the technique: "What he did actually, to get these rotational sounds was he put a loudspeaker in the middle of the table and then four microphones. Then he spun the loudspeaker and recorded these rotations so that in the performance and conductor, the sound swirls."
This experience sparked Chowning's interest in creating music for loudspeakers with freely wandering spatial trajectories. He recalls thinking, "I'd really love to be able to write music for loudspeakers like as he did, but with rather than just protections, but kind of freely wandering spatial trajectories."
Stanford and the Introduction to Computer Music
Upon returning to Stanford University for graduate studies, Chowning sought ways to realize his vision of spatial electronic music. However, he found no interest or facilities for electronic music at Stanford initially. A pivotal moment came when a fellow percussionist in the Stanford Orchestra gave him an article by Max Mathews on computer music generation.
Chowning remembers, "He came in one day after hearing with my talk about my experience in Paris. He knew about my interest in electronic music, and she gave me this article by Max Mathews, which was the seminal article in the field that was the first public exposure to the idea of generating music with computers."
Though he had no background in computer science and was already 28 years old, Chowning was determined to learn programming to bypass the complexities of analog electronic music studios. He took a course in computer programming, learning languages like Algol and Fortran.
The Discovery of FM Synthesis
Chowning's breakthrough came in 1967 while experimenting with rapid frequency modulation to create spatial effects. He inadvertently discovered that very fast modulation produced complex timbres rich in harmonics. As he describes it:
"I was aware of the fact that at the time to make a tone with two oscillators with lots of harmonics would have taken, you know, as many oscillators as or as [harmonics]. Yeah. So I started pushing it like well I tried really fast then hugely fast. All of a sudden I realized I was hearing a tone that was rich in harmonics."
This was the genesis of FM synthesis - a technique that could generate a wide range of tones using just two oscillators. Chowning emphasizes that FM was not an invention but a discovery: "FM was not an invention. It was a discovery of something that existed in nature."
Refining FM Synthesis
Chowning spent years refining the technique, creating brass, vocal, and percussion-like sounds. He explored various aspects of FM synthesis, including the use of carrier and modulator frequencies, modulation index, and the creation of both harmonic and inharmonic spectra.
He explains some of the technical aspects: "If you have a ratio that's of safe carries a modulating frequency of 4 to 1. If you have energy of the fourth, harmonic third, second, fifth, sixth and seventh, depending on the index, it's so third harmonic."
Chowning's approach to sound synthesis was deeply influenced by his understanding of natural sounds and human perception. He emphasizes the importance of imperfections and micro-modulations in making synthesized sounds more lifelike: "The randomness makes it sound like a real voice... Because in the real voice, the imperfections like the best singer dream don't come to a singer. Cannot sing see home without your."
Collaboration and Interdisciplinary Learning
Chowning's work exemplifies the value of interdisciplinary collaboration. At Stanford's Artificial Intelligence Laboratory (AI Lab), he found himself surrounded by leading engineers, computer scientists, and researchers from various fields. He recalls:
"These were my teachers. You know, I could go during the day and ask questions. I could work during the day, but I could say, hey, tell me about the Doppler function because I need it for my special station program. And the guy would sit down and explain how it worked and and how to implement it."
This environment allowed Chowning to ask questions freely and gain insights from experts across disciplines. He notes, "There was a psychiatrist. A mathematician? Robots, robotics guys, speech guys. All these people. Answer my simple questions and I would ask them over and over, one by one."
The Yamaha Partnership and the DX7
The discovery of FM synthesis was not just a personal achievement for Chowning, but a significant advancement in the field of electronic music. Yamaha licensed the FM technology from Stanford in 1973. After a decade of development, they released the groundbreaking DX7 synthesizer in 1983.
Chowning is quick to credit the team at Yamaha: "The DX7 is not my work. The DX7 is a result of about 100 really, really good engineers at Yamaha who worked over a ten year period." He visited Yamaha in Japan multiple times during the development process, working closely with their engineers.
The DX7 became one of the best-selling synthesizers in history, bringing FM synthesis to the forefront of popular music production. Its distinctive sounds defined much of 1980s pop music and continue to influence electronic music today. As Chowning notes with some surprise: "I never thought that [FM] would like, be part of every, like, dubstep in New York. Never."
Impact and Legacy
The impact of FM synthesis on electronic music was profound. It allowed for the creation of complex, evolving timbres with relatively simple means. This efficiency made it ideal for implementation in digital synthesizers.
Chowning's work also paved the way for other innovations in digital sound synthesis. For example, the Synclavier, another early digital synthesizer, also incorporated FM synthesis techniques.
Throughout his career, Chowning maintained a composer's perspective, focusing on timbre as a primary musical parameter. He saw FM not just as a technical innovation, but as a means of musical expression. His approach was always guided by his ear and musical intuition, even as he delved into complex technical territory.
Continuing Innovation
Today, Chowning continues to push boundaries in computer music and spatial sound at Stanford's Center for Computer Research in Music and Acoustics (CCRMA). He remains passionate about the potential of FM synthesis and believes it hasn't yet reached its full potential, particularly due to limitations in user interfaces.
Chowning's work at CCRMA involves creating music for multiple loudspeakers in various configurations, exploring new ways of spatial sound projection. He's particularly interested in creating immersive sound experiences in open spaces, like parks.
Reflections and Lessons
John Chowning's journey from curious musician to electronic music pioneer demonstrates the power of following one's passion, embracing new technologies, and bridging disciplines. His discovery of FM synthesis, born from a simple desire to create spatial sound effects, ended up transforming the landscape of electronic music and sound synthesis.
Chowning emphasizes the importance of persistence in creative and technical endeavors. He says, "How many times in my work I get up early and work on my computer programming for some musical problem and. I keep saying I get discouraged. Can't find a solution. I keep saying don't give up. Keep going."
The story of FM synthesis also highlights the importance of academic-industry partnerships. The collaboration between Stanford University and Yamaha Corporation led to the successful commercialization of a groundbreaking technology, benefiting both institutions and revolutionizing the music industry.
Chowning's experience underscores the value of interdisciplinary environments in fostering innovation. He credits much of his success to the rich, multidisciplinary environment at Stanford's AI Lab, saying, "Without that environment, I would not have succeeded."
As Chowning himself puts it: "The discovery was a new discovery. That's really important. It wasn't like I was a math major or somebody knew about technology I developed. It was absolutely... Yeah. You're discovering."
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